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This article is about the concept of the meaning of life. For other uses, see Meaning of life (disambiguation).
The meaning of life is an elusive concept that has been the subject of much philosophical, scientific and theological speculation.Julian Baggini (September 2004). What\'s It All About? Philosophy and the Meaning of Life. USA: Granta Books. ISBN 1862076618. Bernard Reginster (2006). The Affirmation of Life: Nietzsche on Overcoming Nihilism. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674021991. Julian Young (2003). The Death of God and the Meaning of Life. Routledge. ISBN 0415307902. Jonathan Westphal (1998). Philosophical Propositions: An Introduction to Philosophy. Routledge. ISBN 0415170532.
It is often expressed in various related questions:Matthew Kelly (2005). The Rhythm of Life: Living Every Day with Passion and Purpose. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0743265106.
Publishers. ISBN 184310167X. Question of the Month: What Is The Meaning Of Life?. Philosophy Now. Issue 59. Retrieved on 2007-07-26.Glenn Yeffeth (2005). The Anthology at the End of the Universe: Leading Science Fiction Authors on Douglas Adams\' The Hitchhiker\'s Guide to the Galaxy. BenBella Books, Inc. ISBN 1932100563.
Throughout history, scientists and philosophers, theologians and artists, and generally, men and women of every age, race, and culture have discussed and debated many questions in the quest to discover and understand the meaning of life.
Philosophy is concerned with issues like ethics, what constitutes genuine knowledge and proper reasoning. The issue of the meaning of life has a rich tradition of thought in the history of philosophy. For example, philosophers have considered such questions as:
Some philosophical disciplines have also aimed to develop an understanding of life that explains, regardless of how we came to be here, what we should do now that we are here. (see Humanist views of the meaning of life)
Religions are belief systems relying on the faith of their adherents. They may be defined as organized traditions of rules and orthodoxy that attempt to serve spiritual needs of their followers. Religions give an answer to the question "What is the meaning of my life?", where the religious answer tends to include a certain moral demand.Leo Tolstoy (2007). On Life and Essays on Religion. READ BOOKS, 448. ISBN 1406742090. Generally, religions play important parts in devising spiritual terms that soothe grieve in bereavements and keep humanity gentle-hearted with facing death.
Spirituality is generally linked to one\'s deepest inwardness and innermost being and also involves awareness, sensibility and transcendence. Contemporary understandings of spirituality emphasise the dynamic quality of spirituality as lived experience; an experience linked to our bodies, to nature, to our relationships with others and society. It is an experience which seeks the fullness of life, a life that touches the spirit, in the midst of all our struggles of living. Spirituality can also be described as a different way of seeing, seeing our own lives, those of others and all life on earth in a different light and from a different perspective, the discovery of new insight and wisdom whereby we reshape the inwardness of our lives. Spirituality is always connected to an inner-awakening, a discovery and transforming of one\'s understanding and insight. Spirituality may basically be summarized as understanding the meaning of life, all of life and reality itself.Theresa King (1992). The Spiral Path: Explorations in Women\'s Spirituality. Yes International Publishers. ISBN 0936663138.
Mysticism focuses more on direct experience than religions generally do. Various forms of mysticism are associated with one or more religions, and some may form an independent movement, thus the view of mysticism varies widely according to how each speaker describes it. In general, the view is broadly that life is a happening, an unfolding, and the meaning of life is conceived as how one fits in the scheme of things. The purpose of life is mystical enlightenment, which can be defined as ending a sense of an individual self by means of mystical cultivation. It involves knowledge of the fundamental nature of reality and living a life in accordance with it.Richard H. Jones (2004). Mysticism and Morality: A New Look at Old Questions. Lexington Books, 432. ISBN 0739107844.
Plato and Aristotle, as represented in Raphael\'s The School of Athens fresco.
Plato was one of the earliest and most influential thinkers of Western philosophy, most famous for his realist stance regarding the existence of universals. In the Theory of Forms he asserts that universals do not exist in the way that ordinary physical objects exist, but rather with a sort of ghostly or heavenly mode of existence. He describes the Form of the Good in his dialogue, The Republic, speaking through the character of Socrates. The Idea of the Good is the child or offspring (ekgonos) of the Good, the ideal or perfect nature of goodness, and so an absolute measure of justice.
For Plato the meaning of life is to attain the highest form of knowledge, which is the Idea (or Form) of the Good. It is from this which all things that are good and just gain their usefulness and value. Humans have a duty to pursue the good, but no one can hope to do this successfully without philosophical reasoning.
Aristotle, a student of Plato, was another of the earliest and most influential philosophers. He believed that ethical knowledge is not certain knowledge (like metaphysics and epistemology) but is general knowledge. Because it is not a theoretical discipline, he thought a person had to study in order to become \'good\'. Thus if a person were to become virtuous, he could not simply study what virtue is, he had to actually do virtuous activities.
In order to do this, Aristotle had to first establish what was virtuous. He began by determining that everything was done with some goal in mind and that goal is \'good\':
But, if action A is done with the goal B, the goal B would also have a goal, goal C. Goal C would also have a goal and this would continue until something stopped the infinite regress. This was the Highest Good, and he said that it must have three characteristics:
Thus for Aristotle, the meaning of life involves achieving eudaemonia, which is usually translated as "happiness," but could also be "well-being" or "flourishing."
Cynicism is one of the most striking of all the Hellenistic philosophies. It offered people the possibility of happiness and freedom from suffering in an age of uncertainty. Although there was never an official Cynic doctrine, the fundamental principles of Cynicism can be summarised as follows:Kidd, I., "Cynicism," in The Concise Encyclopedia of Western Philosophy. (ed. Urmson and Rée), Routledge. (2005)Long, A. A., "The Socratic Tradition: Diogenes, Crates, and Hellenistic Ethics," in The Cynics: The Cynic Movement in Antiquity and Its Legacy. (ed. Branham and Goulet-Cazé), University of California Press, (1996).
Cyrenaicism, founded by Aristippus of Cyrene, was one of the earliest Socratic schools, and emphasized one side only of the Socratic teaching. Taking Socrates\' assertion that happiness is one of the ends of moral action, Aristippus maintained that pleasure was the supreme good. He found bodily gratifications, which he considered more intense, preferable to mental pleasures. They also denied that we should defer immediate gratification for the sake of long-term gain. In these respects they differ from the Epicureans."Cyrenaics." Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The University of Tennessee At Martin. 4 Nov. 2007 <http://www.iep.utm.edu/>."The Cyrenaics and the Origin of Hedonism." Hedonism.org. BLTC. 4 Nov. 2007 <http://www.hedonism.org>.
Bust of Epicurus leaning against his disciple Metrodorus in the Louvre Museum.
While the pursuit of pleasure formed the focal point of the philosophy, this was largely directed to the \'static pleasures\' of minimizing pain, anxiety and suffering.
When we say...that pleasure is the end and aim, we do not mean the pleasures of the prodigal or the pleasures of sensuality, as we are understood to do by some through ignorance, prejudice or wilful misrepresentation. By pleasure we mean the absence of pain in the body and of trouble in the soul. It is not by an unbroken succession of drinking bouts and of revelry, not by sexual lust, nor the enjoyment of fish and other delicacies of a luxurious table, which produce a pleasant life; it is sober reasoning, searching out the grounds of every choice and avoidance, and banishing those beliefs through which the greatest tumults take possession of the soul.Epicurus, "Letter to Menoeceus", contained in Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers, Book X
Epicureanism rejects immortality and mysticism; it believes in the soul, but suggests that the soul is as mortal as the body. Epicurus rejected any possibility of an afterlife, while still contending that one need not fear death:
Death is nothing to us; for that which is dissolved, is without sensation, and that which lacks sensation is nothing to us.Bertrand Russell (1946). A History of Western Philosophy, New York: Simon and Schuster; London: George Allen and Unwin
Stoicism teaches the development of self-control and fortitude as a means of overcoming destructive emotions; the philosophy holds that becoming a clear and unbiased thinker allows one to understand the universal reason (logos). Stoicism\'s prime directives are virtue, reason, and natural law. The Stoics did not seek to extinguish emotions, only to avoid emotional troubles by developing clear judgment and inner calm through diligent practice of logic, reflection, and concentration. Stoics believe that to live according to reason and virtue is to live in harmony with the divine order of the universe, which entails the recognition of the common reason and essential value of all people.
The foundation of Stoic ethics is that good lies in the state of the soul itself, and it is exemplified by wisdom and self-control. The meaning of life is to be free of suffering through apatheia (απαθεια) (Greek) understood as being objective or having "clear judgment", rather than simple indifference. Another essential aspect of Stoicism involves improving the individual’s spiritual well-being: "Virtue consists in a will which is in agreement with Nature." This principle also applies to the realm of interpersonal relationships; "to be free from anger, envy, and jealousy".
Nihilism rejects claims to knowledge and truth, and explores the meaning of an existence without knowable truth. Though nihilism tends toward defeatism, one can find strength and reason for celebration in the varied and unique human relationships it explores. From a nihilist point of view, morals are valueless and only hold a place in society as false ideals created by various forces. The characteristic that distinguishes nihilism from other skeptical or relativist philosophies is that, rather than merely insisting that values are subjective or even warrantless, nihilism declares that nothing is of value, as the name implies.
Friedrich Nietzsche characterized nihilism as emptying the world and especially human existence of meaning, purpose, comprehensible truth, or essential value. He summed up the process of nihilism as "the devaluing of the highest values".Jérôme Bindé (2004). The Future Of Values: 21st-Century Talks. Berghahn Books. ISBN 1571814426. He also saw nihilism as a natural result of the idea that God is dead, and insisted that it was something to be overcome, by calling the nihilist\'s life-negating values in question and return meaning to the Earth.
Martin Heidegger described nihilism as the movement whereby Being is forgotten and is wholly transformed into value, or in other words, the reduction of being to exchange value.
Pragmatism is a school of philosophy which originated in the United States in the late 1800s. Pragmatism is characterized by the insistence on consequences, utility and practicality as vital components of truth. Pragmatism holds that it is only in the struggle of intelligent organisms with the surrounding environment that theories and data acquire significance. Pragmatism does not hold, however, that just anything that is useful or practical should be regarded as true, or anything that helps us to survive merely in the short-term; pragmatists argue that what should be taken as true is that which most contributes to the most human good over the longest course. In practice, this means that for pragmatists, theoretical claims should be tied to verification practices — i.e., that one should be able to make predictions and test them − and that ultimately the needs of humankind should guide the path of human inquiry.
Pragmatic philosophers suggest that rather than a truth about life, we should seek a useful understanding of life. William James argued that truth could be made but not sought.William James (1909). The Meaning of Truth. Prometheus Books. ISBN 1-57392-138-6. Walter Robert Corti (1976). The Philosophy of William James. Meiner Verlag. ISBN 3787303529. Thus, the meaning of life is a belief about the purpose of life that does not contradict one\'s experience of a purposeful life. Roughly, this could be applied as: "The meaning of life is those purposes which cause you to value it." To a pragmatist, the meaning of life, your life, can be discovered only through experience.
Jeremy Bentham
The origins of Utilitarianism are often traced back as far as the Greek philosopher Epicurus, but as a specific school of thought, it is generally credited to Jeremy Bentham.Rosen, Frederick (2003). Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill. Routledge, pg. 28. ISBN 0415220947 "It was Hume and Bentham who then reasserted most strongly the Epicurean doctrine concerning utility as the basis of justice." Bentham found pain and pleasure to be the only intrinsic values in the world: "nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure." From this he derived the rule of utility, that the good is whatever brings the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people. Later, after realizing that the formulation recognized two different and potentially conflicting principles, he dropped the second part and talked simply about "the greatest happiness principle."
Jeremy Bentham\'s foremost proponent was James Mill, a significant philosopher in his day and the father of John Stuart Mill. The younger Mill was educated according to Bentham\'s principles, including transcribing and summarising much of his father\'s work whilst still in his teens."Mill, John Stuart. \'On Liberty\', ed. Himmelfarb. Penguin Classics, 1974, Ed.\'s introduction, p.11.
In his famous short work, Utilitarianism, John Stuart Mill argued that cultural, intellectual, and spiritual pleasures are of greater value than mere physical pleasure, because the former would be valued more highly by competent judges than the latter. A competent judge, according to Mill, is anyone who has experienced both the lower pleasures and the higher.John Stuart Mill (1863). Utilitarianism.
Arthur Schopenhauer offered a bleak answer to "what is the meaning of life?" by determining one\'s life as a reflection of one\'s will and the will (and thus life) as being an aimless, irrational, and painful drive. He saw salvation, deliverance, or escape from suffering in aesthetic contemplation, sympathy for others, and asceticism.Dale Jacquette (1996). Schopenhauer, Philosophy, and the Arts. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521473888. Durno Murray (1999). Nietzsche\'s Affirmative Morality. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3110166011. Søren Kierkegaard invented the term "leap of faith" and argued that life is full of absurdity and the individual must make his or her own values in an indifferent world. For Kierkegaard, an individual can have a meaningful life (or at least one free of despair) if the individual relates the self in an unconditional commitment to something finite, and devotes his or her life to the commitment despite the inherent vulnerability of doing so.Amy Laura Hall (2002). Kierkegaard and the Treachery of Love. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521893119.
The "Happy Human" symbol representing Humanism.
According to humanism, the human race came to be by reproducing in a progression of unguided evolution as an integral part of nature, which is self-existing.Humanist Manifesto I [1]. American Humanist Association (1933). Retrieved on 2007-07-26.Humanist Manifesto II [2]. American Humanist Association (1973). Retrieved on 2007-08-01. Knowledge does not come from supernatural sources, rather it flows from human observation, experimentation, and rational analysis preferably utilizing the scientific method: the nature of the universe is what we discern it to be. As are "values and realities", which are determined "by means of intelligent inquiry" and "are derived from human need and interest as tested by experience", that is, by critical intelligence.Humanist Manifesto III [3]. American Humanist Association (2003). Retrieved on 2007-08-01.A Secular Humanist Declaration [4]. Council for Democratic and Secular Humanism (now the Council for Secular Humanism) (1980). Retrieved on 2007-08-01. "As far as we know, the total personality is [a function] of the biological organism transacting in a social and cultural context."
Humanists believe that human purpose is determined by humans, completely without supernatural influence; it is human personality (in the broadest sense) that is the purpose of a human\'s life, and this humanism seeks to develop and fulfill: "Humanism affirms our ability and responsibility to lead ethical lives of personal fulfillment that aspire to the greater good of humanity." Humanists seek enlightened self-interest and the common good for all people. The happiness of the individual is inextricably linked to the well-being of humanity as a whole, in part because we are social animals which find meaning in relationships, and because cultural progress benefits everybody who lives in that culture.
Posthumanism and transhumanism (sometimes used as synonyms) are extensions of humanistic values. Like humanism, they propose that we should seek the advancement of humanity and of all life to the greatest degree feasible, with an emphasis on reconciling the views of Renaissance humanism to correspond more closely to the 21st century\'s concepts of technoscientific knowledge. These views insist that all living things be granted the basic option to inquire after their own personal or social "meaning(s) of life" (including meanings that human beings are currently incompetent to comprehend) as much as it is physically possible to do so, and no less.Nick Bostrom (2005). Transhumanist Values. Oxford University. Retrieved on 2007-07-28. They insist that the meaning of life is necessarily indefinite and ambiguous, and should be left to the philosophical inclinations of the individual; however there is a moral imperative common to all intelligent agents to improve their lives.
Of the meaning of life, Ludwig Wittgenstein and the logical positivists said: expressed in language, the question is meaningless. This is because "meaning of x" is a term in life usually conveying something regarding the consequences of x, or the significance of x, or that which should be noted regarding x, etc. So when "life" is used as "x" in the term "meaning of x", the statement becomes recursive and therefore nonsensical, or would simply refer to the obvious fact that the condition of life is essential for having meaning (in life).
In other words, things in a person\'s life can have meaning (importance), but a meaning of life itself, i.e., apart from those things, can\'t be discerned. In this context, a person\'s life is said to have meaning (significance to himself and others) in the form of the events throughout his life and the results of his life in terms of achievements, a legacy, family, etc. But to say that life itself has meaning is a misuse of language, since any note of significance or consequence is relevant only in life (to those living it), rendering the statement erroneous. Bertrand Russell, for example, wrote that although he found it impossible to bring himself to seriously believe that his distaste for torture was similar in nature to his distaste for broccoli, he nonetheless could find no satisfactory empirical method of proving this:
When we try to be definite as to what we mean when we say that this or that is "the Good," we find ourselves involved in very great difficulties. Bentham\'s creed that pleasure is the Good roused furious opposition, and was said to be a pig\'s philosophy. Neither he nor his opponents could advance any argument. In a scientific question, evidence can be adduced on both sides, and in the end, one side is seen to have the better case - or, if this does not happen, the question is left undecided. But in a question as to whether this or that is the ultimate Good, there is no evidence either way; each disputant can only appeal to his own emotions, and employ such rhetorical devices as shall rouse similar emotions in others...Questions as to "values" - that is to say, as to what is good or bad on its own account, independently of its effects - lie outside the domain of science, as the defenders of religion emphatically assert. I think that in this they are right, but I draw the further conclusion, which they do not draw, that questions as to "values" lie wholly outside the domain of knowledge. That is to say, when we assert that this or that has "value," we are giving expression to our own emotions, not to a fact which would still be true if our personal feelings were different.Bertrand Russell (1961). Science and Ethics
Symbols of the three main Abrahamic religions – Christianity, Judaism and Islam
Jews believe the purpose of life is to serve GodDan Cohn-Sherbok (2003). Judaism: History, Belief, and Practice. Routledge, 512. ISBN 0415236614. and to prepare for the world to comeAbraham Joshua Heschel (2005). Heavenly Torah: As Refracted Through the Generations. Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 0826408028. "Olam Haba".Wilfred Shuchat (2006). The Garden of Eden & the Struggle to Be Human: According to the Midrash Rabbah. Devora Publishing, 584. ISBN 1932687319.
Judaism regards life as a precious gift from God; precious not only because it is a gift from God, but because, for humans, there is a uniqueness attached to that gift. Of all the creatures on Earth, humans are created in the image of God. Our lives are sacred and precious because we carry within us the Divine Image, and with it, unlimited potential.Randolph L. Braham (1983). Contemporary Views on the Holocaust. Springer. ISBN 089838141X.
While Jewish thoughts are about elevating yourself in spirituality and connecting to God and trying to prepare for "Olam Haba", Jewish thought is to use this world "Olam Hazeh" to help elevate ourself into the next.
Kabbalah takes it one step further. The Zohar states that the reason for life is to better one\'s soul. The soul descends to this world and endures the trials of this life so that it can reach a higher spiritual state upon its return to the source.
Christians draw many of their beliefs from the Holy Bible, and believe that loving God is the meaning of life. In order to achieve this, one would ask for forgiveness of sins and receive God into their heart. Christianity believes in an eternal afterlife, and declares that it is an unearned gift from God through the love of Jesus Christ, which is to be received or forfeited by faith. (Ephesians 2:8-9; Romans 6:23); (John 3:16-21; John 3:36).
Christians believe they are being tested and purified so that they may have a place of responsibility with Jesus in the eternal Kingdom to come. What the Christian does in this life will determine his place of responsibility with Jesus in the eternal Kingdom to come. Jesus encouraged Christians to be overcomers, so that they might share in the glorious reign with Him in the life to come: "To him who overcomes, I will give the right to sit with me on my throne, just as I overcame and sat down with my Father on his throne. He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches." (Rev 3:21-22)
The Bible states that it is God "in whom we live and move and have our being" (Acts 17:28), that to Fear God is the beginning of wisdom, and to depart from evil is the beginning of understanding (Job 28:28) and that "In Christ Jesus are hidden all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge" (Colossians 2:3). The Bible also says, in Ecclesiastes 12:13 "Let us hear the conclusion of the whole matter: Fear God, and keep his commandments: for this is the whole duty of man", and "Whether therefore ye eat, or drink, or whatsoever ye do, do all to the glory of God." Corinthians 10:31
In one of the Westminster Articles (1647), the Shorter Catechism, the first question is "What is the chief end of man?", or in other words, \'What is man\'s main purpose?\'. The answer, according to the Catechism is "Man\'s chief end is to glorify God and enjoy him forever."[citation needed]
In Islam the ultimate objective of man is to seek the pleasure of Allah by living in accordance with the Divine guidelines as stated in the Qur\'an and the Tradition of the Prophet. The Qur\'an clearly states that the whole purpose behind the creation of man was for gloryfying and worshipping Allah:Ian Markham; İbrahim Özdemir (2005). Globalization, Ethics and Islam: The Case of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.. ISBN 0754650154. "I only created jinn and man to worship Me" (Qur\'an 51:56). Worshiping in Islam means to testify to the oneness of God in his lordship, names and attributes. To Muslims, life was created as a test, and how well one performs on this test will determine whether one finds a final home in Jannah (Heaven) or Jahannam (Hell).
The esoteric Muslim view, generally held by Sufis, the universe exists only for God\'s pleasure. Creation works as a grand game,Abdullah Yusuf Ali (2000). The Holy Qur\'an. Wordsworth Editions. ISBN 1853267821. with Allah as the greatest prize.
Two Bahá\'í symbols in one; a nine-pointed star with the calligraphy of the Greatest Name in the centre
The Bahá\'í Faith, founded by Bahá\'u\'lláh, emphasizes the spiritual unity of all humankind."Bahaism." The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, vol. Fourth Edition, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2007, <http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/bahaism> According to Bahá\'í teachings, religious history has unfolded through a series of God\'s messengers who brought teachings suited for the capacity of the people at their time, and whose fundamental purpose is the same.
The purpose of human life, say Bahá\'ís, is spiritual growth. This is conceived almost as an organic process, like the development of a fetus, and continues after death. Neither a physical Heaven or Hell are present in the Bahá\'í Faith. The Bahá\'í teachings present "Heaven" and "Hell" to be states of spiritual nearness or remoteness to God, and that life continues in an afterlife through which the soul may progress infinitely through ever-more-exalted spiritual realms, eventually coming to stand before the Presence of God. The Bahá\'í faith teaches that this process continues on in the spiritual afterlife, and not through a series of births and re-births as in reincarnation.
Bahá\'u\'lláh (1873). The Kitáb-i-Aqdas: The Most Holy Book [5]. Wilmette, Illinois, USA: Bahá\'í Publishing Trust. ISBN 0853989990. Bahá\'u\'lláh (1862). The Kitáb-i-Íqán: The Book of Certitude [6]. Wilmette, Illinois, USA: Bahá\'í Publishing Trust. ISBN 1931847088. Bahá\'u\'lláh [1856-63] (1991). The Seven Valleys and the Four Valleys [7]. Wilmette, Illinois, USA: Bahá\'í Publishing Trust. ISBN 0-87743-227-9.
Bahá\'ís believe that while God\'s essence can never be fully fathomed, he can be understood through his "names and attributes." These are sometimes referred to as gems, and include such qualities as compassion, justice, knowledge, and wisdom. Education (especially of a spiritual nature) reveals the divine gems which God has placed within our souls.Bahá\'u\'lláh (2002). Gems of Divine Mysteries [8]. Haifa, Israel: Bahá\'í World Centre. ISBN 0-85398-975-3.
Hinduism is an extremely diverse religion. Although some tenets of the faith are accepted by most Hindus, scholars have found it difficult to identify any doctrines with universal acceptance among all denominations.Simon Weightman (1998), "Hinduism", in Hinnells, John (Ed.), The new Penguin handbook of living religions, Penguin books, ISBN 0-140-51480-5 Most Hindus believe that the spirit or soul—the true "self" of every person, called the ātman—is eternal.Monier Monier-Williams (1974), Brahmanism and Hinduism: Or, Religious Thought and Life in India, as Based on the Veda and Other Sacred Books of the Hindus, Adamant Media Corporation, ISBN 1421265311, <http://books.google.com/books?id=U5IBXA4UpT0C&dq=isbn:1421265311>. Retrieved on 2007-07-08 The purusharthas are the canonical four ends or aims of human life.For dharma, artha, and kama as "brahmanic householder values" see: Flood (1996), p. 17.For the Dharma Śāstras as discussing the "four main goals of life" (dharma, artha, kāma, and moksha) see: Hopkins, p. 78.For definition of the term पुरुष-अर्थ (puruṣa-artha) as "any of the four principal objects of human life, i.e. धर्म, अर्थ, काम, and मोक्ष" see: Apte, p. 626, middle column, compound #1. These goals are, from lowest to highest importance: Kāma (sensual pleasure or love), Artha (wealth), Dharma (righteousness or morality) and Moksha (liberation from the cycle of reincarnation)
According to the monistic/pantheistic theologies of Hinduism (such as the Advaita Vedanta school), the ātman is ultimately indistinct from Brahman, the supreme spirit. Brahman is described as "The One Without a Second;" hence these schools are called "non-dualist."Bhaskarananda, Swami (1994), written at Seattle, WA, The Essentials of Hinduism: a comprehensive overview of the world\'s oldest religion, Viveka Press, ISBN 1-884852-02-5 The goal of life according to the Advaita school is to realize that one\'s atman (soul) is identical to Brahman, the supreme soul.Vivekananda, Swami (1987), written at Calcutta, Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, Advaita Ashrama, ISBN 81-85301-75-1 The Upanishads state that whoever becomes fully aware of the ātman as the innermost core of one\'s own self, realises their identity with Brahman and thereby reaches Moksha (liberation or freedom)Werner, Karel (1994), "Hinduism", written at Richmond, Surrey, in Hinnells, John (Ed.), A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism, Curzon Press, ISBN 0-7007-0279-2See also the Vedic statement "ayam ātmā brahma" (This Atman is Brahman). The notion of lila (literally, "play") refers to the idea of the universe as a cosmic game, and meaning as a "play of significance".Richard Schechner (2002). Performance Studies: An Introduction. Routledge, 304. ISBN 0415146208. This "play", manifested in the million-formed inexhaustible richness of beings and events, is what gives us the key to the meaning of life.Thomas Merton (1995). Thoughts on the East. New Directions Publishing, 84. ISBN 0811212939.
Other Hindu schools, such as the dualist Dvaita Vedanta and other bhakti schools, understand Brahman as a Supreme Being who possesses personality. On these conceptions, the ātman is dependent on Brahman, and the meaning of life is to achieve Moksha through love towards God and on God\'s grace.
The Jain dharmacakra, which symbolizes the Jain Vow of Ahimsa, meaning non-violence, and halting the cycle of reincarnation through relentless pursuit of truth.
Jainism is a religion originating in ancient India, its ethical system promotes self-discipline above all else. Through following the ascetic teachings of jina, a human achieves enlightenment (perfect knowledge). Jainism divides the universe into living and non-living beings. Only when the non-living become attached to the living does suffering result. Therefore, happiness is the result of self-conquest and freedom from external objects. The meaning of life may then be said to be to use of the physical body to achieve self-realization and bliss.Shah, Natubhai. Jainism: The World of Conquerors. Sussex Academic Press, 1998.
Jains believe that every human is responsible for his or her actions and all living beings have an eternal soul, jīva. Jains believe all souls are equal because they all possess the potential of being liberated and attaining Moksha. The Jain view of karma is that every action, every word, every thought produces, besides its visible, an invisible, transcendental effect on the soul.
Jainism includes strict adherence to ahimsa (or ahinsā), a form of nonviolence that goes far beyond vegetarianism. Jains refuse food obtained with unnecessary cruelty. Many practice a lifestyle similar to Veganism due to the violence of modern dairy farms, and others exclude root vegetables from their diets in order to preserve the lives of the plants from which they eat.Viren, Jain. RE Today. Retrieved on 2007-06-14.
The eight-spoked Dharmacakra. The eight spokes represent the Noble Eightfold Path of Buddhism.
This teaching is called the Catvāry Āryasatyāni (Pali: Cattāri Ariyasaccāni), or the "Four Noble Truths".Theravada Buddhism promotes the concept of Vibhajjavada (Pali), literally "Teaching of Analysis." This doctrine says that insight must come from the aspirant\'s experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith; however, the scriptures of the Theravadin tradition also emphasize heeding the advice of the wise, considering such advice and evaluation of one\'s own experiences to be the two tests by which practices should be judged. The Theravadin goal is liberation (or freedom) from suffering, according to the Four Noble Truths. This is attained in the achievement of Nibbana, or Unbinding which also ends the repeated cycle of birth, old age, sickness and death.
Mahayana Buddhist schools de-emphasize the traditional Theravada ideal of the release from individual Suffering (Dukkha) and attainment of Awakening (Nirvana). In Mahayana, the Buddha is seen as an eternal, immutable, inconceivable, omnipresent being. The fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine are based around the possibility of universal liberation from suffering for all beings, and the existence of the transcendent Buddha-nature, which is the eternal Buddha essence present, but hidden and unrecognised, in all living beings.
The monastic Sikh religion founded by Guru Nanak Dev, and the term "sikh" means student, which denotes that followers will lead their lives forever learning. This system of religious philosophy and expression has been traditionally known as the Gurmat (literally the counsel of the gurus) or the Sikh Dharma. The followers of Sikhism are ordained to follow the teachings of the ten Sikh gurus, or enlightened leaders, as well as the holy scripture entitled the Gurū Granth Sāhib, which includes selected works of many philosophers from diverse socio-economic and religious backgrounds.
The Sikh Gurus tell us that salvation can be obtained by following various spiritual paths. Therefore, Sikhs do not have a monopoly on salvation: "The Lord dwells in every heart, and every heart has its own way to reach Him."Daljeet Singh (1971). Guru Tegh Bahadur. Language Dept., Punjab, 195. Sikhs do not consider they have an "exclusive" right to salvation. Sikhs believe that all people are equally important before God.Jon Mayled (2002). Modern World Religions: Sikhism. Harcourt Heinemann, 62. ISBN 0435336266. Sikhs balance their moral and spiritual values with the quest for knowledge, and they aim to promote a life of peace and equality but also of positive action.The Sikh Coalition
A key distinctive feature of Sikhism is a non-anthropomorphic concept of God, to the extent that one can interpret God as the Universe itself (see pantheism). Sikhism thus sees life as an opportunity to understand this God as well as to discover the divinity which lies in each individual. While a full understanding of God is beyond human beings,Parrinder, Geoffrey (1971). World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present. United States: Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited, 252. ISBN 0-87196-129-6. Nanak described God as not wholly unknowable. God is omnipresent (sarav viāpak) in all creation and visible everywhere to the spiritually awakened. Nanak stressed that God must be seen from "the inward eye", or the "heart", of a human being: devotees must meditate to progress towards enlightenment. Nanak emphasized the revelation through meditation, as its rigorous application permits the existence of communication between God and human beings.
According to Sikhism, every creature has a soul. In death, the soul passes from one body to another until final liberation. The journey of the soul is governed by the karma of the deeds and actions we perform during our lives, and depending on the goodness or wrongdoings committed by a person in their life they will either be rewarded or punished in their next life. As the spirit of God is found in all life and matter, a soul can be passed onto other life forms, such as plants and insects - not just human bodies. A person who has evolved to achieve spiritual perfection in his lifetimes attains salvation – union with God and liberation from rebirth in the material world.
In Taoism, the Taijitu symbolizes the unity of opposites between ying and yang, described in the theory of the Taiji.
The Taoists cosmogony emphasizes the need for all sentient beings and all man to return to the primordial or to rejoin with the Oneness of the Universe by way of self-correction and self realization. It is the objective for all adherents to understand and be in tune with the ultimate truth.
Within the theology of Taoism, all man were originally a being called yuanling from Taiji and Tao, the meaning in life for the adherents is to realise the temporal nature of the existence, and all adherents are expected to practise, hone and conduct their mortal lives by way of Xiuzhen and Xiushen, as a preparation for the spiritual transcendence thereafter. "Only introspection can then help us to find our innermost reasons for living...the simple answer is here within ourselves."Ming-Dao Deng (1990). Scholar Warrior: An Introduction to the Tao in Everyday Life. HarperCollins.
A torii is a traditional Japanese gate commonly found at the entry to a Shinto shrine.
Shinto wants life to live, not to die. Shinto sees death as pollution and regards life as the realm where the divine spirit seeks to purify itself by rightful self-development. Shinto wants individual human life to be prolonged forever on earth as a victory of the divine spirit in preserving its objective personality in its highest forms. The presence of evil in the world, as conceived by Shinto, does not stultify the divine nature by imposing on divinity responsibility for being able to relieve human suffering while refusing to do so. The sufferings of life are the sufferings of the divine spirit in search of progress in the objective world.J. W. T. Mason (2002). The Meaning of Shinto. Trafford Publishing, 175.